June | 2025 | Quantum Frontiers

When I worked in Cambridge, Massachusetts, a friend reported that MIT’s postdoc association had asked its members how it could improve their lives. The friend confided his suggestion to me: throw more parties.¹ This year grants his wish on a scale grander than any postdoc association could. The United Nations has designated 2025 as the International Year of Quantum Science and Technology (IYQ), as you’ve heard unless you live under a rock (or without media access—which, come to think of it, sounds not unappealing).

A metaphorical party cracker has been cracking since January. Governments, companies, and universities are trumpeting investments in quantum efforts. Institutions pulled out all the stops for World Quantum Day, which happens every April 14 but which scored a Google doodle this year. The American Physical Society (APS) suffused its Global Physics Summit in March with quantum science like a Bath & Body Works shop with the scent of Pink Pineapple Sunrise. At the summit, special symposia showcased quantum research, fellow blogger John Preskill dished about quantum-science history in a dinnertime speech, and a “quantum block party” took place one evening. I still couldn’t tell you what a quantum block party is, but this one involved glow sticks.

Attending the summit, I felt a satisfaction—an exultation, even—redolent of twelfth grade, when American teenagers summit the Mont Blanc of high school. It was the feeling that this year is our year. Pardon me while I hum “Time of your life.”²

Speakers and organizer of a Kavli Symposium, a special session dedicated to interdisciplinary quantum science, at the APS Global Physics Summit

Just before the summit, editors of the journal PRX Quantum released a special collection in honor of the IYQ.³ The collection showcases a range of advances, from chemistry to quantum error correction and from atoms to attosecond-length laser pulses. Collaborators and I contributed a paper about quantum complexity, a term that has as many meanings as companies have broadcast quantum news items within the past six months. But I’ve already published two Quantum Frontiers posts about complexity, and you surely study this blog as though it were the Bible, so we’re on the same page, right?

Just joshing.

Imagine you have a quantum computer that’s running a circuit. The computer consists of qubits, such as atoms or ions. They begin in a simple, “fresh” state, like a blank notebook. Post-circuit, they store quantum information, such as entanglement, as a notebook stores information post-semester. We say that the qubits are in some quantum state. The state’s quantum complexity is the least number of basic operations, such as quantum logic gates, needed to create that state—via the just-completed circuit or any other circuit.

Today’s quantum computers can’t create high-complexity states. The reason is, every quantum computer inhabits an environment that disturbs the qubits. Air molecules can bounce off them, for instance. Such disturbances corrupt the information stored in the qubits. Wait too long, and the environment will degrade too much of the information for the quantum computer to work. We call the threshold time the qubits’ lifetime, among more-obscure-sounding phrases. The lifetime limits the number of gates we can run per quantum circuit.

The ability to perform many quantum gates—to perform high-complexity operations—serves as a resource. Other quantities serve as resources, too, as you’ll know if you’re one of the three diehard Quantum Frontiers fans who’ve been reading this blog since 2014 (hi, Mom). Thermodynamic resources include work: coordinated energy that one can harness directly to perform a useful task, such as lifting a notebook or staying up late enough to find out what a quantum block party is.

My collaborators: Jonas Haferkamp, Philippe Faist, Teja Kothakonda, Jens Eisert, and Anthony Munson (in an order of no significance here)

My collaborators and I showed that work trades off with complexity in information- and energy-processing tasks: the more quantum gates you can perform, the less work you have to spend on a task, and vice versa. Qubit reset exemplifies such tasks. Suppose you’ve filled a notebook with a calculation, you want to begin another calculation, and you have no more paper. You have to erase your notebook. Similarly, suppose you’ve completed a quantum computation and you want to run another quantum circuit. You have to reset your qubits to a fresh, simple state.

Three methods suggest themselves. First, you can “uncompute,” reversing every quantum gate you performed.⁴ This strategy requires a long lifetime: the information imprinted on the qubits by a gate mustn’t leak into the environment before you’ve undone the gate.

Second, you can do the quantum equivalent of wielding a Pink Pearl Paper Mate: you can rub the information out of your qubits, regardless of the circuit you just performed. Thermodynamicists inventively call this strategy erasure. It requires thermodynamic work, just as applying a Paper Mate to a notebook does.

Third, you can

Suppose your qubits have finite lifetimes. You can undo as many gates as you have time to. Then, you can erase the rest of the qubits, spending work. How does complexity—your ability to perform many gates—trade off with work? My collaborators and I quantified the tradeoff in terms of an entropy we invented because the world didn’t have enough types of entropy.⁵

Complexity trades off with work not only in qubit reset, but also in data compression and likely other tasks. Quantum complexity, my collaborators and I showed, deserves a seat at the great soda fountain of quantum thermodynamics.

The great soda fountain of quantum thermodynamics

…as quantum information science deserves a seat at the great soda fountain of physics. When I embarked upon my PhD, faculty members advised me to undertake not only quantum-information research, but also some “real physics,” such as condensed matter. The latter would help convince physics departments that I was worth their money when I applied for faculty positions. By today, the tables have turned. A condensed-matter theorist I know has wound up an electrical-engineering professor because he calculates entanglement entropies.

So enjoy our year, fellow quantum scientists. Party like it’s 1925. Burnish those qubits—I hope they achieve the lifetimes of your life.

¹Ten points if you can guess who the friend is.

²Whose official title, I didn’t realize until now, is “Good riddance.” My conception of graduation rituals has just turned a somersault.

³PR stands for Physical Review, the brand of the journals published by the APS. The APS may have intended for the X to evoke exceptional, but I like to think it stands for something more exotic-sounding, like ex vita discedo, tanquam ex hospitio, non tanquam ex domo.

⁴Don’t ask me about the notebook analogue of uncomputing a quantum state. Explaining it would require another blog post.

⁵For more entropies inspired by quantum complexity, see this preprint. You might recognize two of the authors from earlier Quantum Frontiers posts if you’re one of the three…no, not even the three diehard Quantum Frontiers readers will recall; but trust me, two of the authors have received nods on this blog before.

Editor’s note (Nicole Yunger Halpern): Jade LeSchack, the Quantum Steampunk Laboratory’s first undergraduate, received her bachelor’s degree from the University of Maryland this spring. Kermit the Frog presented the valedictory address, but Jade gave the following speech at the commencement ceremony for the university’s College of Mathematical and Natural Sciences. Jade heads to the University of Southern California for a PhD in physics this fall.

Good afternoon, everyone. My name is Jade, and it is my honor and pleasure to speak before you.

Today, I’m graduating with my Bachelor of Science, but when I entered UMD, I had no idea what it meant to be a professional scientist or where my passion for quantum science would take me. I want you to picture where you were four years ago. Maybe you were following a long-held passion into college, or maybe you were excited to explore a new technical field. Since then, you’ve spent hours titrating solutions, debugging code, peering through microscopes, working out proofs, and all the other things our disciplines require of us. Now, we’re entering a world of uncertainty, infinite possibility, and lifelong connections. Let me elaborate on each of these.

First, there is uncertainty. Unlike simplified projectile motion, you can never predict the exact trajectory of your life or career. Plans will change, and unexpected opportunities will arise. Sometimes, the best path forward isn’t the one you first imagined. Our experiences at Maryland have prepared us to respond to the challenges and curveballs that life will throw at us. And, we’re going to get through the rough patches.

Second, let’s embrace the infinite possibilities ahead of us. While the concept of the multiverse is best left to the movies, it’s exciting to think about all the paths before us. We’ve each found our own special interests over the past four years here, but there’s always more to explore. Don’t put yourself in a box. You can be an artist and a scientist, an entrepreneur and a humanitarian, an athlete and a scholar. Continue to redefine yourself and be open to your infinite potential.

Third, as we move forward, we are equipped not only with knowledge but with connections. We’ve made lasting relationships with incredible people here. As we go from place to place, the people who we’re close to will change. But we’re lucky that, these days, people are only an email or phone call away. We’ll always have our UMD communities rooting for us.

Now, the people we met here are certainly not the only important ones. We’ve each had supporters along the various stages of our journeys. These are the people who championed us, made sacrifices for us, and gave us a shoulder to cry on. I’d like to take a moment to thank all my mentors, teachers, and friends for believing in me. To my mom, dad, and sister sitting up there, I couldn’t have done this without you. Thank you for your endless love and support.

To close, I’d like to consider this age-old question that has always fascinated me: Is mathematics discovered or invented? People have made a strong case for each side. If we think about science in general, and our future contributions to our fields, we might ask ourselves: Are we discoverers or inventors? My answer is both! Everyone here with a cap on their head is going to contribute to both. We’re going to unearth new truths about nature and innovate scientific technologies that better society. This uncertain, multitudinous, and interconnected world is waiting for us, the next generation of scientific thinkers! So let’s be bold and stay fearless.

Congratulations to the class of 2024 and the class of 2025! We did it!

Author’s note: I was deeply grateful for the opportunity to serve as the student speaker at my commencement ceremony. I hope that the science-y references tickle the layman and SME alike. You can view a recording of the speech here. I can’t wait for my next adventures in quantum physics!